you lie your troll ass of stu.
http://www.ws5.com/Penrose/
(from the Emperorâs New Mind, Penrose, pp 339-345 copyright 1989, Penguin Books)
How special was the big bang?
Let us try to understand just how much of a constraint a condition such as WEYL
= 0 at the big bang was. For simplicity (as with the above discussion) we shall
suppose that the universe is closed. In order to be able to work out some clear-cut
figures, we shall assume, furthermore, that the number B of baryons-that is, the
number of protons and neutrons, taken together-in the universe is roughly given by
B = 10^80.
(There is no particular reason for this figure, apart from the fact that,
observationally B must be at least as large as this; Eddington once claimed to have
calculated B exactly, obtaining a figure which was close to the above value!
No-one seems to believe this particular calculation any more, but the value 10^80
appears to have stuck.) If B were taken to be larger than this (and perhaps, in actual
fact, B = infinity) then the figures that we would obtain would be even more
striking than the extraordinary figures that we shall be arriving at in a minute!
Try to imagine the phase space (cf. p. 177) of the entire universe! Each point in
this phase space represents a different possible way that the universe might have
started off. We are to picture the Creator, armed with a `pin' which is to be placed
at some point in the phase space (Fig. 7.19 not shown). Each different positioning of
the pin provides a different universe. Now the accuracy that is needed for the Creator's
aim depends upon the entropy of the universe that is thereby created. It would be
relatively `easy' to produce a high entropy universe, since then there would be a
large volume of the phase space available for the pin to hit. (Recall that the entropy
is proportional to the logarithm of the volume of the phase space concerned.) But
in order to start off the universe in state of low entropy-so that there will indeed be
a second law of thermodynamics-the Creator must aim for a much tinier volume of
the phase space. How tiny would this region be, in order that a universe closely
resembling the one in which we actually live would be the result? In order to
answer this question, we must first turn to a very remarkable formula, due to Jacob
Bekenstein (1972) and Stephen Hawking (1975), which tells us what the entropy
of a black hole must be.
Consider a black hole, and suppose that its horizon's surface area is A. The
Bekenstein-Hawking formula for the black hole's entropy is the:
Sbh = A/4 + (kc^3 / Gh)
where k is Boltzmann's constant, c is the speed of light, G is Newton's gravitational
constant, and h is Planck's constant over 2pi. The essential part of this formula is the
A/4. The part in parentheses merely consists of the appropriate physical constants.
Thus, the entropy of a black hole is proportional to its surface area. For a
spherically symmetrical black hole, this surface area turns out to be proportional to
the square of the mass of the hole
A = m^2 x 8pi(G^2/c^4).
Putting this together with the Bekenstein-Hawking formula, we find that the
entropy of a black hole is proportional to the square of its mass:
Sbh = m^2 x 2pi (kG/hc)
Thus, the entropy per unit mass of a black hole is proportional to its mass, and so
gets larger and larger for larger and larger black holes. Hence, for a given amount
of mass-or equivalently, by Einstein's E = mc^2, for a given amount of energy-the
greatest entropy is achieved when the material has all collapsed into a black hole!
Moreover, two black holes gain (enormously) in entropy when they mutually
swallow one another up to produce a single united black hole! Large black holes,
such as those likely to be found in galactic centres, will provide absolutely
stupendous amounts of entropy-far and away larger than the other kinds of entropy
that one encounters in other types of physical situation.
There is actually a slight qualification needed to the statement that the greatest
entropy is achieved when all the mass is concentrated in a black hole. Hawking's
analysis of the thermodynamics of black holes, shows that there should be a
non-zero temperature also associated with a black hole. One implication of this is
that not quite all of the mass-energy can be contained within the black hole, in the
maximum entropy state, the maximum entropy being achieved by a black hole in
equilibrium with a `thermal bath of radiation'. The temperature of this radiation is
very tiny indeed for a black hole of any reasonable size. For example, for a black
hole of a solar mass, this temperature would be about 10^-7 K, which is somewhat
smaller than the lowest temperature that has been measured in any laboratory to
date, and very considerably lower than the 2.7 K temperature of intergalactic space.
For larger black holes, the Hawking temperature is even lower!
The Hawking temperature would become significant for our discussion only if
either: (i) much tinier black holes, referred to as mini-black holes, might exist in our
universe; or (ii) the universe does not recollapse before the Hawking evaporation
time-the time according to which the black hole would evaporate away completely.
With regard to (i), mini-black holes could only be produced in a suitably chaotic big
bang. Such mini-black holes cannot be very numerous in our actual universe, or
else their effects would have already been observed; moreover, according to the
viewpoint that I am expounding here, they ought to be absent altogether. As regards
(ii), for a solar-mass black hole, the Hawking evaporation time would be some
10^54 times the present age of the universe, and for larger black holes, it would be
considerably longer. It does not seem that these effects should substantially modify
the above arguments.
To get some feeling for the hugeness of black-hole entropy, let us consider what
was previously thought to supply the largest contribution to the entropy of the
universe, namely the 2.7 K black-body background radiation. Astrophysicists had
been struck by the enormous amounts of entropy that this radiation contains, which
is far in excess of the ordinary entropy figures that one encounters in other
processes (e.g. in the sun). The background radiation entropy is something like
10^8 for every baryon (where I am now choosing `natural units', so that
Boltzmann's constant, is unity). (In effect, this means that there are 10^8 photons in
the background radiation for every baryon.) Thus, with 10^88 baryons in all, we
should have a total entropy of
10^88
for the entropy in the background radiation in the universe.
Indeed, were it not for the black holes, this figure would represent the total
entropy of the universe, since the entropy in the background radiation swamps that
in all other ordinary processes. The entropy per baryon in the sun, for example, is of
order unity. On the other hand, by black-hole standards, the background radiation
entropy is utter `chicken feed'. For the Bekenstein-Hawking formula tells us that the
entropy per baryon in a solar mass black hole is about 10^20, in natural units, so
had the universe consisted entirely of solar mass black holes, the total figure would
have been very much larger than that given above, namely
10^100.
Of course, the universe is not so constructed, but this figure begins to tell us how
`small' the entropy in the background radiation must be considered to be when the
relentless effects of gravity begin to be taken into account.
Let us try to be a little more realistic. Rather than populating our galaxies
entirely with black holes, let us take them to consist mainly of ordinary stars-some
10^11 of them-and each to have a million (i.e. 10^6) solar-mass black-hole at its
core (as might be reasonable for our own Milky Way galaxy). Calculation shows
that the entropy per baryon would now be actually somewhat larger even than the
previous huge figure, namely now 10^21, giving a total entropy, in natural units, of
10^101.
We may anticipate that, after a very long time, a major fraction of the galaxies'
masses will be incorporated into the black holes at their centres. When this
happens, the entropy per baryon will be 10^31, giving a monstrous total of
10^111.
However, we are considering a closed universe so eventually it should recollapse;
and it is not unreasonable to estimate the entropy of the final crunch by using the
Bekenstein-Hawking formula as though the whole universe had formed a black
hole. This gives an entropy per baryon of 10^43, and the absolutely stupendous
total, for the entire big crunch would be
10^123.
This figure will give us an estimate of the total phase-space volume V available
to the Creator, since this entropy should represent the logarithm of the volume of
the (easily) largest compartment. Since 10^123 is the logarithm of the volume, the
volume must be the exponential of 10^123, i.e.
V = 10^10^123.
in natural units! (Some perceptive readers may feel that I should have used the
figure e^10^123, but for numbers of this size, the a and the 10 are essentially
interchangeable!) How big was the original phase-space volume W that the Creator
had to aim for in order to provide a universe compatible with the second law of
thermodynamics and with what we now observe? It does not much matter whether
we take the value
W = 10^10^101 or W = 10^10^88
given by the galactic black holes or by the background radiation, respectively, or a
much smaller (and, in fact, more appropriate) figure which would have been the
actual figure at the big bang. Either way, the ratio of V to W will be, closely
V/W = 10^10^123.
